Sermon and Worship Resources (2024)

The English word “messiah” derives from the Hebrew verb mashakh, which means “to anoint.” The Greek counterpart of the Hebrew word for “messiah” (mashiakh) is christos, which in English is “Christ.”

In English translations of the Bible, the word “messiah” (“anointed one”) occurs rarely in the OT. In the OT, kings, prophets, and priests were “anointed” with oil as a means of consecrating or setting them apart for their respective offices. Prophets and priests anointed Israel’s kings (1Sam. 16:1 13; 2Sam. 2:4, 7).

The expectation for a “messiah,” or “anointed one,” arose from the promise given to David in the Davidic covenant (2Sam. 7). David was promised that from his seed God would raise up a king who would reign forever on his throne. Hopes for such an ideal king began with Solomon and developed further during the decline (cf. Isa. 9:1–7) and especially after the collapse of the Davidic kingdom.

The harsh reality of exile prompted Israel to hope that God would rule in such a manner. A number of psalms reflect the desire that an ideal son of David would come and rule, delivering Israel from its current plight of oppression. Hence, in Ps. 2 God declares that his son (v.7), who is the Lord’s anointed one (v.2), will receive “the nations [as] your inheritance, the ends of the earth your possession” (v.8). God promises that “you will rule them with an iron scepter; you will dash them to pieces like pottery” (v.9; see NIV footnote). Jesus demonstrates great reticence in using the title “Messiah.” In the Synoptic Gospels he almost never explicitly claims it. The two key Synoptic passages where Jesus accepts the title are themselves enigmatic. In Mark’s version of Peter’s confession (8:29), Jesus does not explicitly affirm Peter’s claim, “You are the Messiah,” but instead goes on to speak of the suffering of the Son of Man. Later, Jesus is asked by the high priest Caiaphas at his trial, “Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One?” (Mark 14:60). In Mark 14:62, Jesus answers explicitly with “I am,” while in Matt. 26:64, he uses the more enigmatic “You have said so.” Jesus then goes on to describe himself as the exalted Son of Man who will sit at Yahweh’s right hand.

Jesus no doubt avoided the title because it risked communicating an inadequate understanding of the kingdom and his messianic role. Although the Messiah was never a purely political figure in Judaism, he was widely expected to destroy Israel’s enemies and secure its physical borders. Psalms of Solomon portrays the coming “son of David” as one who will “destroy the unrighteous rulers” and “purge Jerusalem from Gentiles who trample her to destruction” (Pss. Sol. 17.21–23). To distance himself from such thinking, Jesus never refers to himself as “son of David” and “king of Israel/the Jews” as other characters do in the Gospels (Matt. 12:23; 21:9, 15; Mark 10:47; 15:2; John 1:49; 12:13; 18:33). When Jesus was confronted by a group of Jews who wanted to make him into such a king, he resisted them (John 6:15).

In Mark 12:35–37, Jesus also redefines traditional understandings of the son of David in his short discussion on Ps. 110:1: he is something more than a mere human son of David. Combining Jesus’ implicit affirmation that he is the Messiah in Mark 8:30 with his teaching about the Son of Man in 8:31, we see that Jesus is a Messiah who will “suffer many things and be rejected by the elders, the chief priests, and the teachers of the law” (8:31) and through whom redemption will come (10:45). Jesus came not to defeat the Roman legions, but to bring victory over Satan, sin, and death.

In the book of Psalms, “cup” signifies a person’s divinely appointed lot in life (16:56; 23:5). The “cup of salvation” (Ps. 116:13) alludes to the wine poured out as part of the thank offering (Num. 28:7–8).

The most important theological use is the mainly prophetic (but also psalmic [e.g., Ps. 75:8]) image of the cup of God’s wrath that wicked nations will drink (e.g., Isa. 51:17–23; Jer. 25:15–17, 28). The book of Revelation takes up this image (14:10; 16:19; 17:4; 18:6). This OT usage also stands behind the “cup” that Jesus must drink, to which he refers in the prediction of his death (Mark 10:38–39) and in his prayer in the garden of Gethsemane (Mark 14:36; cf. John 18:11: “Shall I not drink the cup the Father has given me?”). On the cross, Jesus as the substitute for sinners bore God’s wrath.

The second king of Israel (r. 1010970 BC), founder of a dynasty that continued with his son Solomon (r. 970–931 BC), who ruled all of Israel; subsequently the remaining “sons of David” ruled the southern kingdom, Judah, until 586 BC.

Human kingship is a late development in Israel, but a number of ancient texts anticipate the establishment of the institution (Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:14–20) and specifically the rise of a king from Judah (Gen. 49:8–12; Num. 24:17). Thus, it is surprising that the first king of Israel is not from Judah, but from Benjamin. When the people ask Samuel for a king, he anoints Saul (1Sam. 8–12), who proves to be a tremendous disappointment. He forfeits the establishment of his dynasty when he shows a lack of confidence in God by rashly offering prebattle sacrifices (13:13–14). God then rejects Saul as king because he does not execute God’s full judgment against the Amalekites as he knows he should (15:23).

Eventually Saul’s moment of judgment comes. Saul’s final battle is against the Philistines, the major foreign force still inside the borders of the promised land. Both Saul and Jonathan meet their end on Mount Gilboa, and David sings songs that express his sadness over their deaths (1Sam. 31–2Sam. 1).

Even with Saul out of the way, David’s rise to kingship is not easy. He is immediately crowned king of Judah (2Sam. 2:1–7), but the northern tribes choose to follow Ish-Bosheth, the son of Saul. War erupts between the two kingdoms. Eventually, though, the powerful general Abner abandons his support of Saul’s son, sealing the end of that dynasty. Ish-Bosheth is killed by his own men, and soon David becomes king over all Israel (5:1–5).

David’s kingship leads to significant victories that, in essence, complete the conquest of Canaan by finally subduing all the internal enemies. His men take the city of Jerusalem from the Jebusites, and he makes it his capital (2Sam. 5:6–16). He also defeats the Philistines, who have been a thorn in the side of Israel for years (2Sam. 5:17–25; for other victories, see 8:1–14). In celebration, David brings the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (2Sam. 6).

The David narrative reaches its apex when God enters into a covenant with him that establishes his dynasty (2Sam. 7; 1Chron. 17). After David dies, his son will succeed him, and indeed his dynasty lasts for many hundreds of years (see below).

David is a good king, but not a perfect king. A turning point in his reign comes in 2Sam. 11. Up to this point, David has been content with what God has given him. He does not grasp for anything that does not belong to him. However, when he sees the beautiful Bathsheba bathing, he sends messengers to bring her to his house, where the two have sexual intercourse and she becomes pregnant. In an attempt to conceal this sin of adultery, he orders the death of her husband, Uriah the Hittite. Thus, he adds the crime of murder to that of adultery.

David thinks that the sin is secret, but nothing is hidden from God, who sends his prophet Nathan to confront David (2Sam. 12; cf. Ps. 51). The difference between Saul and David is not that the latter is perfect but rather that David, as opposed to Saul, repents when he sins. Thus, God allows his reign to continue. Even so, David feels the consequences of his sin. First, the son that Bathsheba bears from her illicit union with David is struck with illness and dies. And ever afterward, David’s family life is troubled, with great impact on the political life of Israel. Son is pitted against son (Amnon and Absalom [2Sam. 13]), as well as son against father (Absalom and David [2Sam. 15–18]). Absalom temporarily deposes his father from the throne, but David eventually regains the kingship, though at the cost of the heartbreaking loss of his son.

Even at the very end, there is conflict within David’s house. When David has grown old, another son, Adonijah, attempts to take the throne, with support from powerful people such as Joab and Abiathar. At the instigation of Bathsheba and Nathan, however, David places the son of his choosing, Solomon, on the throne (1Kings 1). David then dies after a reign of forty-one years, seven in Hebron and the rest over all Israel (1Kings 2:10–12).

David’s greatest legacy is the dynasty that bears his name. Beginning with Solomon, however, his successors do not continue his spiritual legacy. Although a number of kings do some good, only Hezekiah (r. 727–698 BC) and Josiah (r. 639–609 BC) are given unqualified approval. Eventually, the Davidic rule comes to an end in Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians (586 BC). But God is not done with his redemptive purposes, and his promise to David is that he will have a ruler on the throne “forever” (2Sam. 7:16). The NT recognizes that Jesus Christ is the fulfillment of this promise. He is the greater son of David, the one who is the Christ or Messiah, the anointed king. Jesus is the one who reigns forever in heaven. The life and the rule of David foreshadow the messianic rule of Jesus Christ.

Mercy is a distinguishing characteristic of the nature of God. God is called “the Father of mercies” (2Cor. 1:3 NRSV [NIV: “Father of compassion”]). God is “rich in mercy” (Eph. 2:4; cf. 2Sam. 24:14; Dan. 9:9). God’s mercy was demonstrated in his covenantal faithfulness to his people (1Kings 8:2324; Mic. 7:18–20). God redeemed the oppressed Israelites from slavery under Pharaoh because of his mercy, which was stirred when he heard their groaning and cry for help.

Jesus Christ lived a life full of mercy. He is, in a sense, the bodily manifestation of God’s mercy. Jesus expressed deep mercy whenever he saw the sick and the lost. The writers of the Gospels describe Jesus’ demonstrations of mercy when he healed the blind, the lame, the deaf, the leprous, the demon-possessed, and the dead (Matt. 9:36; 14:14; 20:34; Mark 1:41; 5:19; 6:34; 8:2; Luke 7:13; John 11:33). Jesus especially had compassion on the crowds, who did not have a spiritual leader, and he compared them to “sheep without a shepherd” (Matt. 9:36).

What is the proper response to God’s mercy and compassion? God expects believers to show the same kind of mercy toward other people. One of the best examples is the parable of the unmerciful servant (Matt. 18:23–35).

Almost all the oil to which the Bible refers is olive oil. Oil was used primarily for cooking, but also for medicinal purposes, cosmetics, lighting, and religious ceremonies.

Oil was one of the major export products of Palestine, with huge economic impact on Israel and Judah. Oil often was used as currency for other needed materials (Deut. 7:13; Neh. 5:11; Luke 16:6). For example, Elisha performed a miracle with oil to help a widow pay her debts (2Kings 4:7). Oil was kept as part of the royal stores (2Kings 20:13; 2Chron. 32:28). There are dozens of ostraca that detail the trading, bartering, and selling of oil.

Oil was one of the main ingredients for cooking. A typical meal consisted of flour pressed together with oil and fried with oil on a griddle (1Kings 17:1216). This was also the typical way in which grain offerings were made at the tabernacle and temple (Lev. 2:1, 4–7). Oil was also used in lamps because it burned cleanly and produced bright light (2Kings 4:10; Matt. 25:3–8). Lamps were used throughout the house. Small lamps, often no larger than a hand, were used to give people light when they were walking and traveling at night. In such instances, extra oil usually was carried as a reserve (Matt. 25:1–13). Both the tabernacle and the temple used olive oil to light their lamps. The finest oil was also used for sacrifices at the tabernacle (Exod. 27:20; 29:40; Lev. 24:2; Num. 28:5).

Oil was used cosmetically as well. For instance, oil was put in the hair for beauty (Eccles. 9:8). Oil was also the normal base for perfumes, mixed with a variety of spices (Esther 2:12). The tabernacle had special anointing oil that was mixed to make a perfume (Exod. 30:25). Oil was also used medicinally to help heal wounds, either by mixing it with other substances or by itself to help seal a wound (Luke 10:34). The elders of the church were commissioned to pray for and anoint the sick with oil (James 5:14).

Righteousness is an important theme in both Testaments of the Bible. The concept includes faithfulness, justice, uprightness, correctness, loyalty, blamelessness, purity, salvation, and innocence. Because the theme is related to justification, it has important implications for the doctrine of salvation.

Being careful to avoid imposing Western philosophical categories onto OT texts, we may say that the core idea of righteousness is conformity to God’s person and will in moral uprightness, justness, justice, integrity, and faithfulness. Behind the many and varied uses of righteousness language in the OT stands the presupposition that God himself is righteous in the ultimate sense (e.g., Ezra 9:15; Isa. 45:21; Zeph. 3:5). Righteousness is the expression of his holiness in relationship to others (Isa. 5:16), and all other nuances of righteousness in the biblical texts are derived from this.

Related to humans, righteousness is often found as the opposite of wickedness. Righteousness often occurs in evaluative contexts, where it relates to proper conduct with respect to God, the order of the world as he created it, the covenant, or law (e.g., Deut. 6:25). God reigns in righteousness and justice (e.g., Ps. 97:2), and humans should align their conduct with this righteous reign. Righteousness can be expressed as personal integrity with phrases such as “my righteousness” (2Sam. 22:21, 25; Ps. 7:8) and “their righteousness” (1Sam. 26:23). Unrighteousness is found in poetic parallel to injustice (e.g., Jer. 22:13); the unjust are parallel with the wicked (Ps. 82:2).

Righteousness language is more rare in the Gospels than one might expect in light of OT and Jewish intertestamental usage. These references fit with the Jewish setting: righteousness is required of God’s people, and unrighteousness is to be avoided. Righteousness is proper conduct with respect to God or Torah (Matt. 21:32) in contrast to wickedness (Matt. 13:49). Righteousness could be conceived as one’s own (e.g., Luke 18:9) and has its reward (Matt. 10:41). While the specific terms related to righteousness are infrequent in the Gospels, the broader concept of conformity to God’s will is widely apparent in calls for repentance, personal moral uprightness, mercy, and concern for the marginalized. The NT Epistles continue these general strands of the concept. Righteousness is related to personal conduct (1Thess. 2:10; 1Tim. 6:11; 2Tim. 2:22; 1Pet. 2:24) and is contrasted with wickedness (2Cor. 6:14); it is a matter of doing, not knowing (Rom. 2:13). An example of righteousness in doing is the kindness shown by the prostitute Rahab, who hid the Israelite spies (James 2:25).

The NT does signal some new dimensions related to righteousness. In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 57), Jesus extends the requirements of righteousness to conformity to his own teaching and directives, a shocking display of authority. In his mission to call sinners rather than the “righteous” (e.g., Mark 2:17), Jesus implicitly questions the righteousness of the “righteous.” In similar manner, personal righteousness in terms of a righteousness of one’s own is negative in the NT (Rom. 10:3; Phil. 3:6; cf. Luke 18:9).

The NT continues the OT theme of righteousness as it relates to God himself. God is righteous (John 17:25; Rom. 3:5; 9:14; Heb. 6:10; cf. Matt. 6:33). His judgments are righteous (Rom. 2:5), and his commands and laws are righteous (Rom. 7:12; 8:4). God is a righteous judge (2Tim. 4:8). His saving activity is righteous; he does not compromise his own justice in justifying the ungodly (Rom. 3:24–26). The righteousness of God is contrasted with human unrighteousness and wickedness (Rom. 3:5; James 1:20). Since God reigns over creation in righteousness, human conduct should conform to that standard (e.g., Rom. 14:17). Jesus is also noted as righteous (Acts 3:14; 7:52; 22:14; 1Pet. 3:18; 1John 2:1, 29). He fulfilled righteousness in the absolute sense of demonstrating complete conformity to the nature and will of God (e.g., 1Pet. 3:18). He also fulfilled God’s righteousness in the sense of his saving activity toward humans (e.g., 2Pet. 1:1).

A wooden walking stick that could have various functions. In ancient times, people did considerable amounts of walking. The ground in Israel is very uneven and rocky, making a walking stick a useful item (Gen. 32:10; Matt. 10:10). It is likely that walking sticks were customized so that they could serve as identification (Gen. 38:25).

Besides their utilitarian purpose, a rod or staff also came to denote an office and/or one’s authority. Military figures carried staffs that indicated their status (Judg. 5:14), and Gen. 49:10 predicts that the ruler’s staff will not depart from the tribe of Judah. Shepherds also carried a staff (Ps. 23:4; Mic. 7:14).

Sometimes a staff signified the presence of God with an individual. It was symbolic of the tree from which it was made, and a tree sometimes symbolically represented God. For this reason, some divine signs are associated with a raised staff. This was the case of Aaron’s staff. The Red Sea split after Moses extended his rod, and the Israelites had the better of the Amalekites on the battlefield as long as Moses kept the rod above his head. See also Aaron’s Rod.

Shepherds were pastoralists who herded sheep and goats for meat, milk, clothing, and sacrifices. Shepherding was an integral part of life and a potent symbol in Israelite culture, reflected in biblical portrayals of Abel (Gen. 4:2), Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1Sam. 16:11), and Jesus (Luke 2:820; John 10:11, 14).

A shepherd could herd his or her own flock (Gen. 30:37–43). Sons (Gen. 37:2), daughters (Gen. 29:6, 9), or hirelings (Gen. 13:7; 1Sam. 25:7; Luke 17:7) could assume the task. As agriculture developed and crops were cultivated, shepherds became marginalized (note that it was the youngest son of Jesse, David, who tended the sheep [1Sam. 16:11–13]) and even despised (Gen. 46:34). Shepherds could live in villages, daily herding their flock to and from nearby arable land (Gen. 29:7–14). Once all the grazing land had been consumed, shepherds led the flock to pastureland far enough from town to prohibit daily returns. They would then live a seminomadic existence, wandering when new grazing land and water were needed (Gen. 37:12; cf. Isa. 13:20). Shepherds constructed makeshift enclosures out of available materials (stones, brush) or used a cave and remained with the flock throughout the night (Gen. 31:40; Song 1:8; Luke 2:8)

The vital role of shepherding in ancient Near Eastern culture naturally led to the metaphorical use of the term to refer to both civil authorities (Num. 27:17; 1Kings 22:17; Isa. 44:28; Ezek. 34:1–19) and deity (Gen. 48:15; 49:24; Pss. 23:1; 78:52), both in Israel and among its neighbors. Both the exodus (Exod. 15:13, 17; Ps. 78:52–55, 71–72) and the return from Babylonian exile (Ps. 44:11–23; Jer. 23:1–8; 31:8–14) are portrayed in pastoral terms as Yahweh shepherding his people to safe pasture. In the NT, Jesus called himself the “good shepherd” (John 10:1–16), and the metaphor is extended to church leaders who are to imitate the good shepherd in their provision and protection of God’s people (Acts 20:28; 1Pet. 5:1–3).

The word “enemy” primarily translates the Hebrew word ’oyev and the Greek word echthros. The word ’oyev occurs almost three hundred times in the OT, with several uses. Other terms commonly occur in parallel with ’oyev (in the NIV, these are generally translated as “enemy”): “adversary” (tsar [Ps. 27:2; Mic. 5:9]), “foe” (tsorer [Exod. 23:22; Ps. 23:5]), “hating one” (sone’ [Deut. 30:7]), and “one rising up” (qam [Ps. 18:48; NIV: “foes”]). Saul was a personal enemy of David (1Sam. 18:29; 24:4, 19). Other pairs of enemies include David and Ish-Bosheth (2Sam. 4:8), and Ahab and Elijah (1Kings 21:20).

In most occurrences, Israel’s politico-military enemies are in view: Midianites, Assyrians, Babylonians, and often the Philistines. Periods of national peace and rest were the exception rather than commonplace (Lev. 26:6; Josh. 14:15; 2Sam. 10:19). Neighboring nations routinely harassed and oppressed Israel (Deut. 1:42; Josh. 7:8; 1Kings 8:33; Mic. 4:10). International fighting against Israel was viewed as divine judgment (Deut. 28:25–26, 31, 48, 68; Judg. 2:14). As the supreme warrior, Yahweh could crush his enemy (Exod. 15:6; cf. Isa. 1:24; Nah. 1:2). More startling are human claims that God was acting as their enemy: the captive Israel made such a claim (Jer. 30:14; Lam. 2:4–5), as did Job (Job 13:24).

The OT commonly refers to a national enemy, as does the NT (e.g., Luke 1:71: “salvation from our enemies and from the hand of all who hate us”). The NT also speaks of enemies in a more personal sense. Jesus acknowledged that believers have personal enemies (Matt. 5:44). Sinners were God’s enemies (Rom. 5:8–10), but Satan remained God’s adversary (Matt. 13:24–30; Luke 10:19).

A collection of 150 poems. They are the hymnbook of the OTperiod, used in public worship. Psalms contains songs of differentlengths, types, and dates. The earliest psalm (Ps. 90) is attributedto Moses (mid-second millennium BC), while the content of Ps. 126 andPs. 137 points to the latest periods of the OT (mid-first millenniumBC). They continue to be used as a source of public worship andprivate devotion.

HistoricalBackground

Mostpsalms have a title. In the Hebrew text this title comprises thefirst verse, whereas English translations set it off before the firstverse. Titles vary. Many name an author (e.g., David [Ps. 3]; Asaph[Ps. 77]; sons of Korah [Ps. 42]), while others provide informationabout genre (e.g., Psalms of Ascent [Pss. 120–134]), tune(e.g., “Do Not Destroy” [Ps. 75]), use in worship (Ps.92), and a circ*mstance that led to composition (Ps. 51). Informationin the title gives hints concerning how psalms were written andbrought into a final collection.

Composition

Asmentioned, the titles of the psalms often give indications ofauthorship and occasionally name the circ*mstance that led to thewriting of the psalm. A good example is Ps. 51, where the titlestates, “For the director of music. A psalm of David. When theprophet Nathan came to him after David had committed adultery withBathsheba.” The title connects the psalm with the eventsrecorded in 2Sam. 11–12 and suggests that David wrote thesong in response to his sin and Nathan’s confrontation.

Althoughonly a handful of the psalms have such a historical title, it islikely that most psalms were composed in response to some specificcirc*mstance that encouraged the author to write. Interestingly,though, the psalmists do not speak about the specific circ*mstance inthe psalm itself. Psalm 51, for instance, fits perfectly with thesituation that the title describes in that it expresses guilt towardGod and asks for forgiveness, but nowhere does it speak specificallyabout adultery. The psalmists do this intentionally because they arewriting the song not as a memorial to an event, but rather as aprayer that others who have had similar though not identicalexperiences can use after them. Thus, Ps. 51 has been used as a modelprayer for many penitents, whether they have sinned like David or inanother way.

Mostmodern hymns have a similar background. John Newton, for instance,was inspired to write “Amazing Grace” because of awe thathe felt at his conversion to Christianity from the evil of being aslave trader. However, when he wrote it, he wanted others to sing itas reflecting not on his conversion but on their own.

Collection

Thepsalms were composed over a thousand-year period. Thus, it appearsthat the book of Psalms was a growing collection until it came to aclose at an unknown time between the writing of the two Testaments.

In1Chron. 16:7–36 we may get a glimpse of how the processworked. The text describes David turning a musical composition overto the Levitical musician Asaph and his associates. It is likely thatthe priests kept an official copy of the book of Psalms in the holyplace (the temple while it stood). The psalms, after all, were thehymns of ancient Israel. Their primary function was as a corporatebook of prayer, though certainly they could be used in privatedevotions (note Hannah’s prayer in 1Sam. 2:1–10 andits relationship to Ps. 113).

Organizationand Structure

Thepsalms have no obvious organization that explains the location of allthe psalms. They are not organized in terms of genre, authorship,time of composition, or length. There is only one statement aboutorganization, found in Ps. 72:20: “This concludes the prayersof David son of Jesse.” In the light of this comment, it issurprising that a number of Davidic psalms appear in subsequentsections (Pss. 101; 103; 108–110; 122; 124; 131; 133; 138–145).The best explanation is that at one point Ps. 72 concluded theDavidic psalms, but there was a reorganization before the canonicalorder was permanently closed.

Anumber of contemporary theories try to find some deep structure tothe book, but it is best to refrain from speculation in regard to theoverall structure. Nonetheless, a few structural characteristics areobvious. First, the division of Psalms into five books seems toreflect the fivefold division of the Pentateuch:

I.Book 1 (Pss. 1–41)

II.Book 2 (Pss. 42–72)

III.Book 3 (Pss. 73–89)

IV.Book 4 (Pss. 90–106)

V.Book 5 (Pss. 107–150)

Eachbook ends with a doxology. Such an intentional association with thePentateuch would lend support to the Psalter’s claim toauthority. Although these are prayers to God, they are also God’sword.

Second,within the Psalter there are subcollections. That is, there arepsalms that came into the book not individually but as a group. Thebest-known such group are the Psalms of Ascent (Pss. 120–134),probably so named because worshipers sang them while going up(ascending) to the Temple Mount during one of the annual religiousfestivals in Jerusalem.

Third,it appears that psalms are intentionally placed at the beginning andat the end of the book to serve as an introduction and a conclusion.Psalms 1–2 serve as an introduction that alerts the reader tothe twin important themes of law and messiah. Psalm 1 pronounces ablessing on those who love God’s law. The psalms, after all,are an intimate and personal conversation with God. One must be onthe side of the godly to enter such a holy textual space, just as onemust be godly to enter the precincts of the temple. After the readerenters, Psalm 2 provides an encounter with God and his anointed one(messiah). At the end of the book, the last five psalms (Pss.146–150) constitute a tremendous doxology of praise.

Thisleads to the final observation on structure. Psalms of lamentpredominate at the beginning of the book, but they give way to hymnsof praise toward the end. It is almost as if one enters the Psaltermourning and leaves it praising. Indeed, the Psalter brings thereader into contact with God and thus transforms the reader fromsadness to joy.

LiteraryConsiderations

Genre.The individual psalms may be identified as songs, prayers, or poems.Specifically, they are lyric poems (expressing the emotions of thepoet), often addressed to God, and set to musical accompaniment.Although the categories overlap, seven different types of psalms canbe recognized, with the first three being by far the most common.

• Lament.The largest single group of psalms are the laments, characterized bythe expression of unhappy emotions: sadness, disappointment, anger,worry. The lamenters call on God to save them, even while at timescomplaining about God’s actions toward them (Ps. 42:9–10).Some laments contain petitions for forgiveness (Ps. 51), while othersassert innocence of any wrongdoing (Ps. 26). A few laments evencontain curses directed toward the enemies who are trying to harm thepsalmist (Ps. 69:19–28). Most laments end by praising God orreaffirming confidence in God (Ps. 130:7–8). Usually the reasonfor the change from mourning to rejoicing is not given, but Ps. 77pinpoints the reason as the memory of God’s great salvationevents in the past (vv. 10, 16–20). One psalm, Ps. 88, lamentsbut never makes the turn, remaining in the pit of despair. Yet evenhere we have a glimmer of hope in that the one who laments is stillspeaking to God.

• Thanksgiving.When God answers a lament, the response is thanksgiving. Psalms ofthanksgiving are very similar to hymns (see below), but they cite anearlier problem that God has addressed. Psalm 30 praises God forrestoring the psalmist’s good fortune and health after hesuffered due to his earlier arrogance that led him to forget God (vv.6–7).

• Hymn.Hymns are psalms of unalloyed praise directed toward God. Thepsalmists often call for others to join their worship of God (Ps.100).

• Remembrance.While many psalms evoke memories of God’s actions in the past(as the lament in Ps. 77 recalls the exodus), certain psalms focus onrehearsing the actions of God in the past. Psalm 136 is one of themost memorable examples. As a liturgical psalm, it recites a divineaction (“[God] swept Pharaoh and his army into the Red Sea”[v.15]) followed by a congregational response (“His loveendures forever”).

• Confidence.These psalms are defined by their mood of quiet trust in God even inthe midst of trouble. They often present a reassuring image of God.The picture of God as a shepherd in Ps. 23 or as a mother in Ps. 131are good examples.

• Wisdom.Some psalms meditate on the law (Pss. 1; 119) or have interestssimilar to those of wisdom literature, such as Job, Proverbs, andEcclesiastes (Pss. 49; 73).

• Kingship.A number of psalms praise God as king (Ps. 47) or the human king ashis agent (Pss. 20–21) or both (Ps.2).

Style.The psalms are poems, and so their style is characterized by the useof parallelism and figurative language. Poetry is also notable forits short lines. A poet packs a lot of meaning into very few words.So it is important to slow down and reflect on a psalm in order toderive its maximum effect. Besides brevity of expression,parallelism, and figurative language, poets create interest by usingother literary tools. The psalmists use these poetic devices not onlyto inform their readers’ intellect but also to stimulate theirimagination and arouse their emotions. (See also Acrostic; Imagery;Poetry.)

TheologicalMessage

Althoughthe psalms are not theological essays, readers can learn about Godand their relationship with God from these poems. The book of Psalmsis a bit like a portrait gallery of God, using images to describe whohe is and the nature of our relationship with him. Some examplesinclude God as shepherd (Ps. 23), king (Ps. 47), warrior (Ps. 98),and mother (Ps. 131), and the list could be greatly expanded. Eachone of these picture images casts light on the nature of God and alsothe nature of our relationship with God. After all, theaforementioned psalms explicitly or implicitly describe God’speople as sheep, subjects, soldiers, and children.

Connectionto the New Testament and Today

Jesushimself draws attention to Psalms as a book that anticipated hiscoming suffering and glorification (Luke 24:25–27, 44). TheGospels recognized that Jesus’ zeal for God was well expressedby Ps. 69:9 (John 2:17). When at the apex of his suffering on thecross, Jesus uttered the words found in Ps. 22:1 (Matt. 27:46). TheNT writers also saw that Jesus was the fulfillment of the covenantthat promised that a son of David would have an everlasting throne(2Sam. 7:16). Accordingly, the royal psalms (e.g., Pss. 2; 110)often were applied to Jesus, who is the Messiah (the Christ, “theanointed one”).

Todaywe read Psalms not only as an ancient witness to the coming work ofChrist but also, as John Calvin put it, as a mirror of our souls. Thepsalms were written for worshipers who came after them with similarthough not identical joys and problems. The psalms should becomemodels of our prayers.

A wooden walking stick that could have various functions. Inancient times, people did considerable amounts of walking. The groundin Israel is very uneven and rocky, making a walking stick a usefulitem (Gen. 32:10; Matt. 10:10). It is likely that walking sticks werecustomized so that they could serve as identification (Gen. 38:25).

Besidestheir utilitarian purpose, a rod or staff also came to denote anoffice and/or one’s authority. Military figures carried staffsthat indicated their status (Judg. 5:14), and Gen. 49:10 predictsthat the ruler’s staff will not depart from the tribe of Judah.Shepherds also carried a staff (Ps. 23:4; Mic. 7:14).

Sometimesa staff signified the presence of God with an individual. It wassymbolic of the tree from which it was made, and a tree sometimessymbolically represented God. For this reason, some divine signs areassociated with a raised staff. This was the case of Aaron’sstaff. The Red Sea split after Moses extended his rod, and theIsraelites had the better of the Amalekites on the battlefield aslong as Moses kept the rod above his head. See also Aaron’sRod.

A shadow may refer to shade generally, darkness, or to aspecific shadow cast by something; “shadow” and “shade”also have other uses by extension. Perhaps because shade is aprotection from the heat of the sun, shade and shadow are metaphorsfor protection (Pss. 91:1; 121:5; Isa. 49:2), as in the phrase“shadow of [God’s] wings” (Pss. 17:8; 36:7; 57:1;63:7). Since shadows change through the day and pass away, shadowbecomes a metaphor for brevity, particularly the brevity of life(1Chron. 29:15; Job 8:9; 14:2; Pss. 102:11; 109:23; 144:4), andfor change (James 1:17 [though this text has other interpretations]).As darkness, shadow sometimes refers to a place to hide (Job 34:22)or to gloom or danger (Pss. 44:19; 107:10, 14; Isa. 9:2; Jer. 2:6).The “land of darkness and deep shadow” appears to be areference to death (Job 10:21 ESV, NASB). And since a shadow’sshape resembles the outline of what casts the shadow, shadow mayrefer to that similarity as a copy, however imperfect (Col. 2:17;Heb. 8:5; 10:1).

Twomiracles involved shadows. God gave Hezekiah a miraculous sign bymoving the shadow on the steps backward (2Kings 20:9–11).As people believed the apostles’ message, they brought the sickto Solomon’s Colonnade, where they were healed when Peter’sshadow fell on them (Acts 5:12–16).

TheHebrew word for “deep darkness,” tsalmawet,was seen as two words by LXX translators and rendered as “shadowof death” (skia thanatou). This wording came into the NT as aquotation or allusion (Matt. 4:16; Luke 1:79). Texts discovered fromaround the time of the judges in Ugaritic, a language closely relatedto Hebrew, have shown that tsalmawet is one word, meaning “deepdarkness” or “gloom.” Modern translations havetended to change the rendering of this word, but some may leave“shadow of death” in Ps. 23:4 because of the popularityof this traditional wording.

Shepherds were pastoralists who herded sheep and goats formeat, milk, clothing, and sacrifices. Shepherding was an integralpart of life and a potent symbol in Israelite culture, reflected inbiblical portrayals of Abel (Gen. 4:2), Moses (Exod. 3:1), David(1Sam. 16:11), and Jesus (Luke 2:8–20; John 10:11, 14).

Ashepherd could herd his or her own flock (Gen. 30:37–43). Sons(Gen. 37:2), daughters (Gen. 29:6, 9), or hirelings (Gen. 13:7;1Sam. 25:7; Luke 17:7) could assume the task. As agriculturedeveloped and crops were cultivated, shepherds became marginalized(note that it was the youngest son of Jesse, David, who tended thesheep [1Sam. 16:11–13]) and even despised (Gen. 46:34).Shepherds could live in villages, daily herding their flock to andfrom nearby arable land (Gen. 29:7–14). Once all the grazingland had been consumed, shepherds led the flock to pastureland farenough from town to prohibit daily returns. They would then live aseminomadic existence, wandering when new grazing land and water wereneeded (Gen. 37:12; cf. Isa. 13:20). Shepherds constructed makeshiftenclosures out of available materials (stones, brush) or used a caveand remained with the flock throughout the night (Gen. 31:40; Song1:8; Luke 2:8).

Ashepherd’s tools included a clublike rod used to guard theflock and fend off predators and thieves (Gen. 31:39; Isa. 31:4; Mic.7:14) and as a tool for dividing the flock (Lev. 27:32; Jer. 33:13);a crook or staff to retrieve strays and injured (Ezek. 34:16; Zech.11:7); a sling and some sort of pouch (1Sam. 17:40); and evendogs (Job 30:1). A shepherd was held accountable for any losses inthe flock and was required to pay restitution (Gen. 31:39; Exod.22:10–13).

Thevital role of shepherding in ancient Near Eastern culture naturallyled to the metaphorical use of the term to refer to both civilauthorities (Num. 27:17; 1Kings 22:17; Isa. 44:28; Ezek.34:1–19) and deity (Gen. 48:15; 49:24; Pss. 23:1; 78:52), bothin Israel and among its neighbors. Both the exodus (Exod. 15:13, 17;Ps. 78:52–55, 71–72) and the return from Babylonian exile(Ps. 44:11–23; Jer. 23:1–8; 31:8–14) are portrayedin pastoral terms as Yahweh shepherding his people to safe pasture.In the NT, Jesus called himself the “good shepherd” (John10:1–16), and the metaphor is extended to church leaders whoare to imitate the good shepherd in their provision and protection ofGod’s people (Acts 20:28; 1Pet. 5:1–3).

A wooden walking stick that could have various functions. Inancient times, people did considerable amounts of walking. The groundin Israel is very uneven and rocky, making a walking stick a usefulitem (Gen. 32:10; Matt. 10:10). It is likely that walking sticks werecustomized so that they could serve as identification (Gen. 38:25).

Besidestheir utilitarian purpose, a rod or staff also came to denote anoffice and/or one’s authority. Military figures carried staffsthat indicated their status (Judg. 5:14), and Gen. 49:10 predictsthat the ruler’s staff will not depart from the tribe of Judah.Shepherds also carried a staff (Ps. 23:4; Mic. 7:14).

Sometimesa staff signified the presence of God with an individual. It wassymbolic of the tree from which it was made, and a tree sometimessymbolically represented God. For this reason, some divine signs areassociated with a raised staff. This was the case of Aaron’sstaff. The Red Sea split after Moses extended his rod, and theIsraelites had the better of the Amalekites on the battlefield aslong as Moses kept the rod above his head. See also Aaron’sRod.

From the Latin word tabula (“board”), “table”first denoted any flat surface, but especially one of wood or stoneused for writing (Exod. 20:2–17). The Ten Commandments wereoriginally inscribed upon two tables of stone. Eventually “table”in this sense was replaced by “tablet” (see Tablet).

Tableswere used for eating, working, and displaying objects: domestictables (Judg. 1:7; 1Sam. 20:29), temple tables of Yahweh(2Chron. 4:8; Ezek. 40:39–43) or of heathen gods (Isa.65:11), the “Lord’s table” (Mal. 1:7, 12), and thetable for the bread of the Presence in the sanctuary (Exod. 25:23–30;1Kings 7:48; Heb. 9:2).

Tablesfound in the ancient Near East usually stood no more than eighteeninches high. Most were made of wood (2Kings 4:10), but thewealthy had tables of ornate stone. It was a great honor to beinvited to eat at or be given food from the king’s table(2Sam. 9:7, 10–13; 1Kings 2:7; 4:27; Dan. 1:5). Thecustom of the rich reclining on couches around a low table (Amos 6:4;cf. 3:12) became commonplace in NT times. Although dining at a tablewas customary (Luke 22:21; Acts 6:2), to eat under the table was fordogs and the despised (Judg. 1:7; Matt. 15:27; Mark 7:28; Luke16:21). Money changers used tables as stands where money wasexchanged (Matt. 21:12; Mark 11:15).

Figuratively,“table” was used to represent the meal on which it wasserved. In the ancient Near East, eating with others expressedintimate fellowship and trust, yet Jesus shared table fellowship withJudas (Luke 22:21). At the Lord’s Table (i.e., Communion,Eucharist), Jesus is the host, who invites us to remember him as weeat (1Cor. 10:21; 11:23–26). The imagery of a banquettable of thanksgiving is used to depict God’s provision for hispeople (Pss. 23:5; 78:19).

A banquet is a joyful celebration, usually involving wine,abundant food, music, and dancing. Banquets celebrated specialoccasions such as the forging of a relationship (Gen. 26:26–30),the coronation of a king (1 Chron. 12:28–40), thecompletion of the temple (2 Chron. 7:8), victory over one’senemies (Gen. 14:18–19; Ps. 23:5), weddings (Gen. 29:22; John2:1–11; Rev. 19:9), birthdays of royals (Mark 6:21), and thereunion of estranged relatives (Luke 15:23–24). Banquets alsosymbolized one’s status, since they were by invitation only.One’s seating arrangement corresponded to one’s socialstatus in the group, since there were “higher” and“lower” positions (Luke 14:8–9). During the meal,people reclined on bedlike seats.

Inthe OT, the image of a banquet anticipates a future occasion when Godwill remove the reproach of his people (Isa. 25:6). It also becomes ametaphor for special access to God, who protects, blesses, and honorshis people (Ps. 23:5).

Theplot of the book of Esther revolves around banquets. The book openswith two big banquets held by Ahasuerus (Esther 1) that conclude withthe removal of Vashti as queen, soon replaced by Esther. Estherinvites the king and Haman to a banquet in order to expose theinsidious plot of the latter (Esther 7). The book culminateswith a great banquet that is the proto­type for an annual banquetcelebrating the Jews’ victory over their enemies, Purim(9:2–32).

Jesususes the banquet as a metaphor for the presence of the kingdom (cf.Matt. 9:14–17). He tells a parable of a king who has planned awedding banquet for his son. Those who were invited have refused toattend (i.e., the Jewish leaders), so the king commands his servantsto go out into the streets and gather as many people as they canfind, both good and bad (Matt. 22:1–10).

Jesusalso uses the imagery of a banquet to describe the final futuremanifestation of the kingdom. He exhorts his disciples to be preparedfor the unexpected return of the bridegroom, lest they be excludedfrom the wedding banquet (Matt. 25:1–13). At the Last Supper,he commands the disciples to continue the practice of sharing breadand wine after his departure, to remember his atoning death and toanticipate his future coming (Matt. 26:26–29). This futurebanquet will celebrate Christ’s final union with his bride, thechurch (Rev. 19:6–9).

A collection of 150 poems. They are the hymnbook of the OTperiod, used in public worship. Psalms contains songs of differentlengths, types, and dates. The earliest psalm (Ps. 90) is attributedto Moses (mid-second millennium BC), while the content of Ps. 126 andPs. 137 points to the latest periods of the OT (mid-first millenniumBC). They continue to be used as a source of public worship andprivate devotion.

HistoricalBackground

Mostpsalms have a title. In the Hebrew text this title comprises thefirst verse, whereas English translations set it off before the firstverse. Titles vary. Many name an author (e.g., David [Ps. 3]; Asaph[Ps. 77]; sons of Korah [Ps. 42]), while others provide informationabout genre (e.g., Psalms of Ascent [Pss. 120–134]), tune(e.g., “Do Not Destroy” [Ps. 75]), use in worship (Ps.92), and a circ*mstance that led to composition (Ps. 51). Informationin the title gives hints concerning how psalms were written andbrought into a final collection.

Composition

Asmentioned, the titles of the psalms often give indications ofauthorship and occasionally name the circ*mstance that led to thewriting of the psalm. A good example is Ps. 51, where the titlestates, “For the director of music. A psalm of David. When theprophet Nathan came to him after David had committed adultery withBathsheba.” The title connects the psalm with the eventsrecorded in 2Sam. 11–12 and suggests that David wrote thesong in response to his sin and Nathan’s confrontation.

Althoughonly a handful of the psalms have such a historical title, it islikely that most psalms were composed in response to some specificcirc*mstance that encouraged the author to write. Interestingly,though, the psalmists do not speak about the specific circ*mstance inthe psalm itself. Psalm 51, for instance, fits perfectly with thesituation that the title describes in that it expresses guilt towardGod and asks for forgiveness, but nowhere does it speak specificallyabout adultery. The psalmists do this intentionally because they arewriting the song not as a memorial to an event, but rather as aprayer that others who have had similar though not identicalexperiences can use after them. Thus, Ps. 51 has been used as a modelprayer for many penitents, whether they have sinned like David or inanother way.

Mostmodern hymns have a similar background. John Newton, for instance,was inspired to write “Amazing Grace” because of awe thathe felt at his conversion to Christianity from the evil of being aslave trader. However, when he wrote it, he wanted others to sing itas reflecting not on his conversion but on their own.

Collection

Thepsalms were composed over a thousand-year period. Thus, it appearsthat the book of Psalms was a growing collection until it came to aclose at an unknown time between the writing of the two Testaments.

In1Chron. 16:7–36 we may get a glimpse of how the processworked. The text describes David turning a musical composition overto the Levitical musician Asaph and his associates. It is likely thatthe priests kept an official copy of the book of Psalms in the holyplace (the temple while it stood). The psalms, after all, were thehymns of ancient Israel. Their primary function was as a corporatebook of prayer, though certainly they could be used in privatedevotions (note Hannah’s prayer in 1Sam. 2:1–10 andits relationship to Ps. 113).

Organizationand Structure

Thepsalms have no obvious organization that explains the location of allthe psalms. They are not organized in terms of genre, authorship,time of composition, or length. There is only one statement aboutorganization, found in Ps. 72:20: “This concludes the prayersof David son of Jesse.” In the light of this comment, it issurprising that a number of Davidic psalms appear in subsequentsections (Pss. 101; 103; 108–110; 122; 124; 131; 133; 138–145).The best explanation is that at one point Ps. 72 concluded theDavidic psalms, but there was a reorganization before the canonicalorder was permanently closed.

Anumber of contemporary theories try to find some deep structure tothe book, but it is best to refrain from speculation in regard to theoverall structure. Nonetheless, a few structural characteristics areobvious. First, the division of Psalms into five books seems toreflect the fivefold division of the Pentateuch:

I.Book 1 (Pss. 1–41)

II.Book 2 (Pss. 42–72)

III.Book 3 (Pss. 73–89)

IV.Book 4 (Pss. 90–106)

V.Book 5 (Pss. 107–150)

Eachbook ends with a doxology. Such an intentional association with thePentateuch would lend support to the Psalter’s claim toauthority. Although these are prayers to God, they are also God’sword.

Second,within the Psalter there are subcollections. That is, there arepsalms that came into the book not individually but as a group. Thebest-known such group are the Psalms of Ascent (Pss. 120–134),probably so named because worshipers sang them while going up(ascending) to the Temple Mount during one of the annual religiousfestivals in Jerusalem.

Third,it appears that psalms are intentionally placed at the beginning andat the end of the book to serve as an introduction and a conclusion.Psalms 1–2 serve as an introduction that alerts the reader tothe twin important themes of law and messiah. Psalm 1 pronounces ablessing on those who love God’s law. The psalms, after all,are an intimate and personal conversation with God. One must be onthe side of the godly to enter such a holy textual space, just as onemust be godly to enter the precincts of the temple. After the readerenters, Psalm 2 provides an encounter with God and his anointed one(messiah). At the end of the book, the last five psalms (Pss.146–150) constitute a tremendous doxology of praise.

Thisleads to the final observation on structure. Psalms of lamentpredominate at the beginning of the book, but they give way to hymnsof praise toward the end. It is almost as if one enters the Psaltermourning and leaves it praising. Indeed, the Psalter brings thereader into contact with God and thus transforms the reader fromsadness to joy.

LiteraryConsiderations

Genre.The individual psalms may be identified as songs, prayers, or poems.Specifically, they are lyric poems (expressing the emotions of thepoet), often addressed to God, and set to musical accompaniment.Although the categories overlap, seven different types of psalms canbe recognized, with the first three being by far the most common.

• Lament.The largest single group of psalms are the laments, characterized bythe expression of unhappy emotions: sadness, disappointment, anger,worry. The lamenters call on God to save them, even while at timescomplaining about God’s actions toward them (Ps. 42:9–10).Some laments contain petitions for forgiveness (Ps. 51), while othersassert innocence of any wrongdoing (Ps. 26). A few laments evencontain curses directed toward the enemies who are trying to harm thepsalmist (Ps. 69:19–28). Most laments end by praising God orreaffirming confidence in God (Ps. 130:7–8). Usually the reasonfor the change from mourning to rejoicing is not given, but Ps. 77pinpoints the reason as the memory of God’s great salvationevents in the past (vv. 10, 16–20). One psalm, Ps. 88, lamentsbut never makes the turn, remaining in the pit of despair. Yet evenhere we have a glimmer of hope in that the one who laments is stillspeaking to God.

• Thanksgiving.When God answers a lament, the response is thanksgiving. Psalms ofthanksgiving are very similar to hymns (see below), but they cite anearlier problem that God has addressed. Psalm 30 praises God forrestoring the psalmist’s good fortune and health after hesuffered due to his earlier arrogance that led him to forget God (vv.6–7).

• Hymn.Hymns are psalms of unalloyed praise directed toward God. Thepsalmists often call for others to join their worship of God (Ps.100).

• Remembrance.While many psalms evoke memories of God’s actions in the past(as the lament in Ps. 77 recalls the exodus), certain psalms focus onrehearsing the actions of God in the past. Psalm 136 is one of themost memorable examples. As a liturgical psalm, it recites a divineaction (“[God] swept Pharaoh and his army into the Red Sea”[v.15]) followed by a congregational response (“His loveendures forever”).

• Confidence.These psalms are defined by their mood of quiet trust in God even inthe midst of trouble. They often present a reassuring image of God.The picture of God as a shepherd in Ps. 23 or as a mother in Ps. 131are good examples.

• Wisdom.Some psalms meditate on the law (Pss. 1; 119) or have interestssimilar to those of wisdom literature, such as Job, Proverbs, andEcclesiastes (Pss. 49; 73).

• Kingship.A number of psalms praise God as king (Ps. 47) or the human king ashis agent (Pss. 20–21) or both (Ps.2).

Style.The psalms are poems, and so their style is characterized by the useof parallelism and figurative language. Poetry is also notable forits short lines. A poet packs a lot of meaning into very few words.So it is important to slow down and reflect on a psalm in order toderive its maximum effect. Besides brevity of expression,parallelism, and figurative language, poets create interest by usingother literary tools. The psalmists use these poetic devices not onlyto inform their readers’ intellect but also to stimulate theirimagination and arouse their emotions. (See also Acrostic; Imagery;Poetry.)

TheologicalMessage

Althoughthe psalms are not theological essays, readers can learn about Godand their relationship with God from these poems. The book of Psalmsis a bit like a portrait gallery of God, using images to describe whohe is and the nature of our relationship with him. Some examplesinclude God as shepherd (Ps. 23), king (Ps. 47), warrior (Ps. 98),and mother (Ps. 131), and the list could be greatly expanded. Eachone of these picture images casts light on the nature of God and alsothe nature of our relationship with God. After all, theaforementioned psalms explicitly or implicitly describe God’speople as sheep, subjects, soldiers, and children.

Connectionto the New Testament and Today

Jesushimself draws attention to Psalms as a book that anticipated hiscoming suffering and glorification (Luke 24:25–27, 44). TheGospels recognized that Jesus’ zeal for God was well expressedby Ps. 69:9 (John 2:17). When at the apex of his suffering on thecross, Jesus uttered the words found in Ps. 22:1 (Matt. 27:46). TheNT writers also saw that Jesus was the fulfillment of the covenantthat promised that a son of David would have an everlasting throne(2Sam. 7:16). Accordingly, the royal psalms (e.g., Pss. 2; 110)often were applied to Jesus, who is the Messiah (the Christ, “theanointed one”).

Todaywe read Psalms not only as an ancient witness to the coming work ofChrist but also, as John Calvin put it, as a mirror of our souls. Thepsalms were written for worshipers who came after them with similarthough not identical joys and problems. The psalms should becomemodels of our prayers.

Hope is one of the main themes of Scripture, and many ofthese hopes focus on the future. For example, Jeremiah gave hisfellow countrymen in the Babylonian captivity this promise: “ ‘ForI know the plans I have for you,’ declares the Lord, ‘plansto prosper you and not to harm you, plans to give you hope and afuture’ ” (Jer. 29:11). The apostle Paul picks upthis theme of hope: “May the God of hope fill you with all joyand peace as you trust in him, so that you may overflow with hope bythe power of the Holy Spirit” (Rom. 15:13).

HopeBased on Promises

Abeliever’s hope focuses on several different kinds of promises.First, there are many promises of God’s assistance in thestruggles and difficulties of life. Paul, for example, concludes,“For I am convinced that neither death nor life, neither angelsnor demons, neither the present nor the future, nor any powers,neither height nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will beable to separate us from the love of God that is in Christ Jesus ourLord” (Rom. 8:38–39). Christians can have the confidencethat “no temptation has overtaken you except what is common tomankind. And God is faithful; he will not let you be tempted beyondwhat you can bear. But when you are tempted, he will also provide away out so that you can endure it” (1Cor. 10:13).

Second,believers also have promises that God will be with them and go withthem through the future experiences of physical suffering and death.Here the classic promise is found in words of the psalmist: “Eventhough I walk through the darkest valley, I will fear no evil, foryou are with me; your rod and your staff, they comfort me” (Ps.23:4). It is because of promises such as this that Paul can wonderwhether it is better to die or to keep on living: “I am tornbetween the two: I desire to depart and be with Christ, which isbetter by far” (Phil. 1:23).

Third,there are promises related to the whole constellation of eventssurrounding Jesus’ return and the conclusion of human historyas we know it. Jesus’ return is described as “the blessedhope” (Titus 2:13). Furthermore, the trials and struggles ofthis present life will be over, and God will complete all histransforming work in our lives in one final moment of glorification.John describes this process this way: “When Christ appears, weshall be like him, for we shall see him as he is” (in 1John3:2). The classic depiction of the future hope is in Rev. 21–22,when “ ‘He will wipe every tear from their eyes.There will be no more death’ or mourning or crying or pain, forthe old order of things has passed away” (21:4).

ThePresent World and the Future Hope

Atthe same time, it is no secret that the broader culture does notaccept this future hope. Paul foresees, “The time will comewhen people will not put up with sound doctrine. Instead, to suittheir own desires, they will gather around them a great number ofteachers to say what their itching ears want to hear” (2Tim.4:3). Peter warns, “In the last days scoffers will come,scoffing and following their own evil desires. They will say, ‘Whereis this “coming” he promised? Ever since our ancestorsdied, everything goes on as it has since the beginning of creation’ ”(2Pet. 3:3–4). There is always the danger that “theworries of this life and the deceitfulness of wealth” (Matt.13:22) will choke out and negate whatever positive spiritualinfluences a person has received in this present life.

Christiansare called to protect themselves from this danger of beingsidetracked by the attractions of this present world by learning tolive life with a daily sense of expectation for Jesus’ return.Three verbs stand out in the description of this proper lifestyle:(1)“watch,” in the sense of being spiritually alertand ready at any time (Matt. 25:13: “Therefore keep watch,because you do not know the day or the hour”; 1Thess.5:6: “So then, let us not be like others, who are asleep, butlet us be awake and sober”); (2)“wait,” inthe sense of being prepared for a long wait (see the story of thefive foolish virgins in Matt. 25:1–13); and (3)“work,”making the best use of our time (see the parable of the talents inMatt. 25:14–30). Truly, “our salvation is nearer now thanwhen we first believed” (Rom. 13:11). The biblical teachings oneschatology are given not merely as information but rather totransform us. The future hope described in Scripture is repeatedlyused as the basis for exhortations as to how we should live our liveshere in the present. Jesus did not simply affirm that these greatevents were to occur; he also emphasized the appropriate behavior inlight of this future reality. “He who testifies to these thingssays, ‘Yes, I am coming soon.’ Amen. Come, Lord Jesus”(Rev. 22:20).

In the Bible, gestures are made with either parts of the bodyor items, such as clothing and rings, directly connected to the body.For this reason, it makes sense to classify biblical gestures inrelation to the different body parts that are identified with thegestures. It is, however, challenging to know where to draw a line onclassifying a gesture. For example, a devious person is described inProv. 6:13 as one “who winks maliciously with his eye, signalswith his feet and motions with his fingers.” It is unclearwhether this is a single gesture or multiple ones, and whether allsignify different things or the same thing.

Head

Gesturesthat relate to the head range from simple head motions to semiviolentacts such as hair pulling. Simple head motions include lifting ofone’s head in honor (Gen. 40:13), bowing one’s head inmourning (Ps. 35:14), tossing one’s head in mockery andderision (2Kings 19:21), and shaking one’s head as insult(Ps. 22:7; Mark 15:29).

Acommon action is the shaving of the head, which can be forpurification (Lev. 14:8–9; Num. 6:9; 8:7 [includes all bodyhair]), mourning (Deut. 21:11–13; Job 1:20; Isa. 15:2; Jer.16:6; 47:5; 48:37; Ezek. 27:31; Amos 8:10; Mic. 1:16), remorse (Jer.41:5), or shaming (Jer. 2:16). However, priests are forbidden fromshaving their heads even in mourning (Lev. 21:5; Ezek. 44:20), whilethe high priest is to wear a turban on his head during sacrificialduties (Exod. 29:6).

Anointingof the head is done when a priest or king is installed (Exod. 29:7;Ps. 23:5) or simply as a sign of God’s goodness and blessing ona person (Eccles. 9:8). Blessing may also involve placing a hand onthe head of the person being blessed (Gen. 48:14–18; Exod.29:19), while the same gesture on the head of sacrificial animals isa symbolic means of transferring sin (Lev. 3:2, 8, 13; 4:4, 15, 24,29, 33; 8:18, 22).

Inthe OT, a woman’s head can be shaved in mourning (Deut.21:12–13; cf. Jer. 47:5), but in the NT, a shaved head can be acause for disgrace (1Cor. 11:5–6).

Face.Facial gestures range from expressions to actions such as touching orcovering the face. A face can be downcast in anger (Gen. 4:5–6)or bowed to the ground in honor (Gen. 48:12), in dejection (Josh.7:6), in humility (Ruth 2:10), in worship (2Chron. 20:18; Ps.138:2), in subjection, supplication, reverence (1Sam. 20:41;25:41; 28:14; 2Sam. 14:4, 22; 18:28; 24:20; 1Kings 1:23;1Chron. 21:20), or in dread (e.g., Moses before Yahweh [Exod.3:6]).

Theface can be covered or veiled as an indication of uncleanness (Lev.13:45), in grief/mourning (2Sam. 19:4; Ezek. 24:17), inresignation (1Kings 19:13), with intent to deceive in adultery(Job 24:15), or in horror of judgment (Esther 7:8; Ezek. 12:6, 12).It can also be buried in the dust in remorse (Lam. 3:29).

Godcan be described as hiding or turning away his face againstwickedness and evil (Deut. 31:18; 32:20; Ps. 34:16; Isa. 8:17; Jer.33:5; Ezek. 7:22; 15:7; 20:46; 21:2) or in an act of withholdingblessings (Job 13:15; Pss. 10:1; 13:1; 27:9; 30:7; 34:16; Isa. 54:8;59:2; 64:7). God can also turn his face toward a place in judgment(Ezek. 4:3, 7; 6:2). In 1Sam. 5:3–4 the idol of thePhilistine god Dagon falls facedown before the ark of the covenant,apparently overpowered by Yahweh.

Actsof humiliation or dishonor can involve spitting in the face (Num.12:14; Deut. 25:9; Job 17:6; 30:10; Isa. 50:6), slapping the face(1Kings 22:24; 2Chron. 18:23; Job 16:10; Lam. 3:30; Mic.5:1), pulling a skirt up over someone’s face in shamingjudgment (Jer. 13:26; Nah. 3:5), and hooking and dragging someone bythe nose (2Kings 19:28). Although being struck on the cheek ishumiliating, Jesus instructs his disciples to “turn the othercheek” as a sign of resistance to violence (Matt. 5:39; Luke6:29).

Onecan lift one’s face in worship (2Kings 20:2; Job 22:26;Isa. 38:2) or in confidence (Job 11:15) and can fail to lift it inshame and disgrace (Ezra 9:6). Although the shaving of beards inmourning is common practice (Ezra 9:3; Isa. 15:2; Jer. 41:5; 48:37),the forced shaving of beards is an act of shaming and insulting(2Sam. 10:4; 1Chron. 19:4–5; Isa. 7:20; 50:6).

Eyes.Winking the eye is perceived as an evil, deceptive, or malicious act(Ps. 35:19; Prov. 6:13; 16:30). Eyes can be lifted up in worship andexpectation (Pss. 121:1; 123:1).

Mouth.Pursed lips can characterize an evil person (Prov. 16:30), while ahand can be clapped over the mouth in awe and submission (Job 21:5;40:4). Psalm 72:9 looks to the righteous king before whom the deserttribes will bow and whose “enemies lick the dust” indefeat.

Ears.An Israelite slave for life is to have a hole punched through his orher earlobe, held against a doorpost, with an awl (Exod. 21:6; Deut.15:17). Blood is sprinkled on the lobe of the right ear forpurification (Exod. 29:20; Lev. 8:23–24; 14:17), whilesupplication can be described as asking for the turning of an ear(2Kings 19:16; Ps. 31:2). Turning one’s ear signifiespaying attention or taking something to heart (Ps. 49:4; Prov. 4:20;5:13).

Neck.The neck can be adorned (Song 1:10) as a sign of pride and honor(Gen. 41:42; Judg. 5:30; Prov. 1:9; Ezek. 16:11) or outstretched inarrogance (Ps. 75:5 TNIV: “Do not lift your horns againstheaven; do not speak with outstretched neck”). Jeremiah put ayoke on his neck as a prophetic sign of the approaching Babylonianconquest (Jer. 27–28). While putting someone’s neck in ayoke is an act of triumphal conquest (Ps. 105:18), stepping on theneck of a subdued enemy is an act of subjugation and humiliation(Josh. 10:24).

Body

Nakednessin public is considered shameful (Gen. 9:22–23; Nah. 3:5; Rev.3:18), so that it is sometimes pictured as part of divine judgment(Deut. 28:48; Isa. 47:2–3; Lam. 1:8; Mic. 1:11) or as a sign ofpromiscuity (Isa. 57:8; Ezek. 16:36). An unkempt body can be a signof mourning, as it is for Mephibosheth (2Sam. 19:24). A certainkind of body covering is a sign of marriage proposal or protection(Ezek. 16:8; 23:18; Hos. 2:9). Body dismembering, even in war, is anact of humiliation (2Sam. 4:12).

Chest.In self-mortification, one can pound one’s chest in mourning(Ezek. 21:12) or in remorse (Jer. 31:19; Luke 18:13). The breasts ofsacrificial animals are waved before God as a “wave offering”before being eaten (Exod. 29:26; Lev. 7:30; Num. 6:20).

Hand,arm.Hand gestures include motions such as lifting hands in worship,clapping hands in joy, and clapping a hand over one’s mouth inawe. The expression “outstretched arm” (Exod. 6:6; Deut.4:34; 5:15; 7:19; 9:29; 11:2; 26:8; 1Kings 8:42; 2Kings17:36; 2Chron. 6:32; Ps. 136:12; Jer. 21:5; 27:5; 32:17, 21;Ezek. 20:33–34) indicates power, might, strength. It is oftenused of God to indicate his ability to defeat powerful armies andenemies. God is implored by the psalmist to lift his hand and act forthe sake of the righteous (Ps. 10:12).

Sincethe right hand is the hand of power, the act of sitting at the righthand indicates being favored (1Kings 2:19; Ps. 110:1; Matt.22:44; Mark 12:36; Luke 20:43; Acts 2:35; Heb. 1:3; 8:1; 10:12; 12:2;1Pet. 3:22). When taking an oath, one places a hand under thethigh/crotch (Gen. 24:2; 47:29), most likely the right hand (see Gen.48:14, 17–18; Lev. 8:23; 14:14).

Clappingthe hands can be a sign of awe (Ezek. 6:11), malice, or remorse(25:6), while a bared arm can be a sign of judgment (4:7). Job clapshis hand over his mouth in awe of God and in submission andrepentance (Job 40:4–5).

Handscan be lifted in worship (1Kings 8:22; 1Tim. 2:8), tobeseech (Ps. 28:2), to protect and bless (Ps. 10:12), in an oath(Deut. 32:40), or to harm (Exod. 24:11; 1Sam. 24:6, 10;2Sam.1:14; 18:12).

Pilatewashes his hands to proclaim his innocence over the death of Jesus(Matt. 27:24), while 1Pet. 5:6 urges believers to humblethemselves “under God’s mighty hand,” so that indue time they will be lifted up.

Buttocks.Exposure of the buttocks can serve as a humiliating insult andprovocation, as happens to David’s men (2Sam. 10:4;1Chron. 19:4) and Egyptian and Cush*te captives (Isa. 20:4).

Leg.The leg or thigh is often a euphemism for the male reproductiveorgans, so that putting one’s hand under a thigh in oath (Gen.24:2; 47:29) may involve actually grabbing the genitalia. Animalthighs are waved to God in offering before being consumed (Lev. 9:21;10:14; Num. 6:20), while oaths administered to uncover adultery causea guilty woman’s thighs to waste (Num. 5:2–27).

Themost common gesture involving the knee is bowing, in worship orreverence (Deut. 33:3; Isa. 45:23; Rom. 11:4; 14:11; Phil. 2:10), indefeat (2Sam. 22:40; Ps. 18:38; Isa. 60:14), in distress (Ps.57:6), or in respect (1Kings 1:31). In what seems to be asomewhat awkward position, Elijah puts his face between his knees inprayer (1Kings 18:42).

Feet.Gestures involving the feet are probably the most common gestures inthe Bible. Feet can be washed in hospitality (Gen. 18:4; 19:2; 24:32;43:24; 1Sam. 25:41), in ablution (Exod. 30:19, 21; 40:31), orin supplication (1Sam. 25:41). Feet can be bathed in oil as ablessing (Deut. 33:24), uncovered in marriage proposals (Ezek. 16:8;cf. Ruth 3:4, 7), and stamped in remorse (Ezek. 25:6), and sandalscan be removed from them in honor (Exod. 3:1–10) or disgrace(Deut. 25:9). The heavenly seraphs cover their feet in supplicationbefore the throne of God (Isa. 6:2), while the feet of humans cansignal deception (Prov. 6:13).

Enemiescan be placed under one’s feet in subjugation (1Kings5:3; Pss. 8:6; 18:39; 45:5; 47:3; 110:1; Mal. 4:3; Rom. 16:20), havetheir feet shackled or ensnared (Job 13:27; 33:11; Pss. 25:15;105:18), and be forced to lick the feet of victors in humiliation anddefeat (Isa. 49:23). The righteous will bathe their feet in the bloodof their enemies in revenge (Pss. 58:10; 68:23).

Thoseoverwhelmed can grovel at the feet of the powerful (2Kings4:27, 37; Esther 8:3; Matt. 28:9; Mark 5:33; 7:25; Acts 10:25), whilethose emboldened can rise to their feet in confidence (Ezek. 2:1–2;3:24; Dan. 8:18).

Inthe NT, dust can be shaken off one’s feet as an indication ofdivine judgment (Matt. 10:14; Mark 6:11; Luke 9:5), even as lying ata person’s feet is a recognition of authority/submission (Matt.15:30; Mark 5:33; Luke 8:28, 35, 41, 47; 10:39; 17:16; Acts 4:37;5:2). A woman publicly washes Jesus’ feet with her tears, wipesthem with her hair, and kisses and perfumes them in what seems an actof love and repentance; but Jesus indicates that she has prepared hisbody for burial (Luke 7:38–46; John 11:2; 12:3). Jesus washeshis disciples’ feet as instruction on servanthood anddiscipleship (John 13:5–14).

Fingers,Toes.Different fingers seem to have different roles assigned them. Afinger sprinkles blood in cleansing (Lev. 4:6, 17, 25, 30, 34; 8:15;9:9; 14:16; 16:14, 19; Num. 19:4), while blood on the tip of theright thumb and on the right big toe is for cleansing (Exod. 29:20;Lev. 8:23–24; 14:17, 25, 28).

Onewears a signet ring as a sign of power (Esther 3:10) or a gesture ofrestoration and forgiveness (Luke 15:22). But fingers can also motionin deception (Prov. 6:13) or point in blame (Isa. 58:9). Jesus writeswith his finger on the ground, apparently as a gesture ofindifference to those pointing accusing fingers (John 8:6).

Clothesand Shoes

Garments.Garments attain significance as they are related to specificemotions. Wearing sackcloth and ashes in mourning is common (Gen.37:34; Ezek. 7:18; 2Sam. 3:31), while ripping garments inmourning is also frequently attested (Gen. 37:34; 44:13; Lev. 10:6;21:10; Josh. 7:6; 2Sam. 1:11; 3:31; 13:31; 1Kings 21:27;2Kings 2:12; 19:1; Esther 4:1; Isa. 32:11; 37:1; Jer. 41:5).

Rippingsomeone’s clothing to expose nakedness (Ezek. 16:39; 2Sam.10:4) or pulling a person’s skirts up over the face (Jer.13:26) is an act of shaming or insulting. But tearing one’sclothes off can be a sign of fury (Matt. 26:65). Persons withdefiling diseases are expected to warn off others by wearing tornclothes and shouting, “Unclean! Unclean!” (Lev. 13:45).

Bylaying their clothes at Saul’s feet, the crowd may beacknowledging his authority in the stoning of Stephen (Acts 7:58).

Sandals.A woman can remove a man’s sandal in contempt (Deut. 25:5–10),while a sandal can be removed by a kinsman-redeemer to indicategiving up a right or as a transfer of property (Ruth 4:7–8). Asandal can also be removed in mourning (Ezek. 24:17) or be cast overa piece of land to claim ownership (Pss. 60:8; 108:9).

PropheticGestures

Propheticgestures in the OT are mostly concerned with the call to repentanceand approaching judgments upon failure to heed the warning. Jeremiahputs a yoke on his neck (Jer. 27–28; cf. Deut. 28:48), Ezekielcooks with dung (Ezek. 4:12) and sleeps on his left side for 390 daysand then on his right side for 40 days (4:5–6), Isaiah stripsoff his clothing (Isa. 20:2–3; 32:11), and Hosea marries anunfaithful wife (Hos. 1:1–3).

Inthe NT, Jesus cleanses the temple as an act of symbolic judgment(Matt. 21:12; Mark 11:15; John 2:15). He also breaks bread and drinkswine (Matt. 26:26; Mark 14:22; Luke 22:19; 24:30, 35; Acts 2:46;20:11; 27:35; 1Cor. 11:24–25) and washes his disciples’feet (John 13:1–13), thereby establishing symbolic Christianpractices.

For Christians, God is the creator of the cosmos and theredeemer of humanity. He has revealed himself in historicalacts—namely, in creation, in the history of Israel, andespecially in the person and work of Jesus Christ. There is only oneGod (Deut. 6:4); “there is no other” (Isa. 45:5). Because“God is spirit” (John 4:24), he must reveal himselfthrough various images and metaphors.

Imageryof God

God’scharacter and attributes are revealed primarily through the use ofimagery, the best and most understandable way to describe themysterious nature of God. Scripture employs many images to describeGod’s being and character. Some examples follow here.

Godis compared to the father who shows compassion and love to hischildren (Ps. 103:13; Rom. 8:15). The father image is also used bythe prophets to reveal God’s creatorship (Isa. 64:8). Jesuspredominantly uses the language of “Father” in referenceto God (Mark 8:38; 13:32; 14:36), revealing his close relationshipwith the Father. God is also identified as the king of Israel evenbefore the Israelites have a human king (1Sam. 10:19).

ThePsalter exalts Yahweh as the king, acknowledging God’ssovereignty and preeminence (Pss. 5:2; 44:4; 47:6–7; 68:24;74:12; 84:3; 95:3; 145:1). God is metaphorically identified as theshepherd who takes care of his sheep, his people, to depict hisnature of provision and protection (Ps. 23:1–4). The image ofthe potter is also employed to describe the nature of God, whocreates his creatures according to his will (Jer. 18:6; Rom.9:20–23). In Hos. 2:4–3:5 God is identified as thelong-suffering husband of the adulterous wife Israel. In the settingof war, God is depicted as the divine warrior who fights against hisenemy (Exod. 15:3).

Godis also referred to as advocate (Isa. 1:18), judge (Gen. 18:25), andlawgiver (Deut. 5:1–22). The image of the farmer is alsofrequently adopted to describe God’s nature of compassionatecare, creation, providence, justice, redemption, sanctification, andmore (e.g., Isa. 5:1–7; John 15:1–12). God is oftenreferred to as the teacher (Exod. 4:15) who teaches what to do, asdoes the Holy Spirit in the NT (John 14:26). The Holy Spirit isidentified as the counselor, the helper, the witness, and the guide(John 14:16, 26; 15:26). God is often metaphorically compared tovarious things in nature, such as rock (Ps. 18:2, 31, 46), light (Ps.27:1), fire (Deut. 4:24; 9:3), lion (Hos. 11:10), and eagle (Deut.32:11–12). In particular, the Davidic psalms employ many imagesin nature—rock, fortress, shield, horn, and stronghold (e.g.,Ps. 18:2)—to describe God’s perfect protection.

Last,anthropomorphism often is employed to describe God’sactivities. Numerous parts of the human body are used to speak ofGod: face (Num. 6:25–26), eyes (2Chron. 16:9), mouth(Deut. 8:3), ears (Neh. 1:6), nostrils (Exod. 15:8), hands (Ezra7:9), arms (Deut. 33:27), fingers (Ps. 8:3), voice (Exod. 15:26),shoulders (Deut. 33:12), feet (Ps. 18:9), and back (Exod. 33:21–22).

Namesand Attributes of God

TheOT refers to God by many names. One of the general terms used forGod, ’el (which probably means “ultimate supremacy”),often appears in a compound form with a qualifying word, as in ’el’elyon (“God Most High”), ’el shadday (“GodAlmighty”), and ’el ro’i (“the God who seesme” or “God of my seeing”). These descriptive namesreveal important attributes of God and usually were derived from thepersonal experiences of the people of God in real-life settings;thus, they do not describe an abstract concept of God.

Themost prominent personal name of God is yahweh (YHWH), which istranslated as “the Lord” in most English Bibles. At theburning bush in the wilderness of Horeb, God first revealed to Moseshis personal name in sentence form: “I am who I am”(Exod. 3:13–15). Though debated, the divine name “YHWH”seems to originate from an abbreviated form of this sentence. Yahweh,who was with Moses and his people at the time of exodus, is the Godwho was with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. According to Jesus’testimony, “the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the Godof Jacob” is identified as the God “of the living”(Matt. 22:32). Hence, the name “Yahweh” is closely tiedto God’s self-revelation as the God of presence and life. (Seealso Names of God.)

Manyof God’s attributes are summarized in Exod. 34:6–7: “TheLord, the Lord, the compassionate and gracious God, slow to anger,abounding in love and faithfulness, maintaining love to thousands,and forgiving wickedness, rebellion and sin. Yet he does not leavethe guilty unpunished; he punishes the children and their childrenfor the sin of the parents to the third and fourth generation.”Below are further explanations of some of the representativeattributes of God.

Holiness.The moral excellence of God is the attribute that underlies all otherattributes. Thus, all God’s attributes can be modified by theadjective holy: holy love, holy justice, holy mercy, holyrighteousness, holy compassion, holy wisdom, and so forth. God is theonly supremely holy one (1Sam. 2:2; Rev. 15:4). God’sname is also holy; those who profane God’s name are condemnedas guilty (Exod. 20:7; Lev. 22:32). God is depicted as the one whohas concern for his holy name, which the Israelites profaned amongthe nations; God actively seeks to restore the holiness of hisdefiled name (Ezek. 36:21–23). God’s holiness is revealedby his righteous action (Isa. 5:16). Not only is God holy, but alsohe expects his people to be holy (Lev. 11:45; 19:2). All thesacrificial codes of Leviticus represent the moral requirements ofholiness for the worshipers. Because of God’s character ofholiness, he cannot tolerate sin in the lives of people, and hebrings judgment to those who do not repent (Hab. 1:13).

Loveand justice.Because “God is love,” no one reaches the true knowledgeof God without having love (1John 4:8). Images of the fatherand the faithful husband are frequently employed to portray God’slove (Deut. 1:31; Jer. 31:32; Hos. 2:14–20; 11:1–4).God’s love was supremely demonstrated by the giving of his onlySon Jesus Christ for his people (John 3:16; Rom. 5:7–8; 1John4:9–10). God expects his people to follow the model of Christ’ssacrificial love (1John 3:16).

God’sjustice is the foundation of his moral law and his ways (Deut. 32:4;Job 34:12; Ps. 9:16; Rev. 15:3). It is also seen in his will (Ps.99:4). God loves justice and acts with justice (Ps. 33:5). God’sjustice is demonstrated in judging people according to theirdeeds—punishing wickedness and rewarding righteousness (Ezek.18:20; Ps. 58:11; Rev. 20:12–13). God establishes justice byupholding the cause of the oppressed (Ps. 103:6) and by vindicatingthose afflicted (1Sam. 25:39). God is completely impartial inimplementing justice (Job 34:18–19). As with holiness, Godrequires his people to reflect his justice (Prov. 21:3).

Godkeeps a perfect balance between the attributes of love and justice.God’s love never infringes upon his justice, and vice versa.The cross of Jesus Christ perfectly shows these two attributes in oneact. Because of his love, God gave his only Son for his people;because of his justice, God punished his Son for the sake of theirsins. The good news is that God’s justice was satisfied by thework of Jesus Christ (Rom. 3:25–26).

Righteousnessand mercy.God’s righteousness shows his unique moral perfection. God’snature, actions, and laws display his character of righteousness(Pss. 19:8–9; 119:137; Dan. 9:14). “Righteousness andjustice” are the foundation of God’s throne (Ps. 89:14).God’s righteousness was especially demonstrated in the work ofJesus Christ (Rom. 3:21–22). God’s righteousness willultimately be revealed in his final judgment (Rev. 19:2; 20–22;cf. Ps. 7:11).

TheEnglish word “mercy” renders various words in theoriginal languages: in Hebrew, khesed, khanan, rakham; in Greek,charis, eleos, oiktirmos, splanchnon. English Bibles translate thesevariously as “mercy,” “compassion,” “grace,”“kindness,” or “love.” The word “mercy”is chosen here as a representative concept (cf. Ps. 86:15). God’smercy is most clearly seen in his act of forgiving sinners. In thePsalter, “Have mercy on me” is the most common form ofexpression when the psalmist entreats God’s forgiveness (Pss.41:4, 10; 51:1). God’s mercy is shown abundantly to his chosenpeople (Eph. 2:4–8). Because of his mercy, their sins areforgiven (Mic. 7:18), their punishments are withheld (Ezra 9:13), andeven sinners’ prayers are heard (Ps. 51:1; Luke 18:13–14).God is “the Father of mercies” (2Cor. 1:3 NRSV).

Godkeeps a perfect balance between righteousness and mercy. Hisrighteousness and mercy never infringe upon each other, nor does oneoperate at the expense of the other. God’s abundant mercy isshown to sinners through Jesus Christ, but if they do not repent oftheir sins, his righteous judgment will be brought upon them.

Faithfulness.God’s faithfulness is revealed in keeping the covenant that hemade with his people. God “is the faithful God, keeping hiscovenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him andkeep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). God is faithful to hischaracter, his name, and his word (Neh. 9:8; Ps. 106:8; 2Tim.2:13; Heb. 6:13–18). God’s faithfulness is clearly seenin fulfilling his promise (Josh. 23:14). God showed his faithfulnessby fulfilling all the promises that he made to Abraham (Gen. 12:2–3;Rom. 9:9; Gal. 4:28; Heb. 6:13–15), by having Solomon build thetemple that he promised to David (2Sam. 7:12–13; 1Kings8:17–21), and by sending his people into exile in Babylon andreturning them to their homeland (Jer. 25:8–11; Dan. 9:2–3).God’s faithfulness was ultimately demonstrated by sending JesusChrist, as was promised in the OT (Luke 24:44; Acts 13:32–33;1Cor. 15:3–8).

Goodness.Jesus said, “No one is good—except God alone” (Mark10:18). God demonstrates his goodness in his actions (Ps. 119:68), inhis work of creation (1Tim. 4:4), in his love (Ps. 86:5), andin his promises (Josh. 23:14–15).

Patience.God is “slow to anger” (Exod. 34:6; Num. 14:18), which isa favorite expression for his patience (Neh. 9:17; Pss. 86:15; 103:8;Joel 2:13). God is patient with sinful people for a long time (Acts13:18). Because of his patient character, he delays punishment (Isa.42:14). For instance, God was patient with his disobedient prophetJonah and also with the sinful people of Nineveh (Jon. 3:1–10).The purpose of God’s patience is to lead people towardrepentance (Rom.2:4).

Godof the Trinity

TheChristian God of the Bible is the triune God. God is one but existsin three persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (Matt.28:19). The Son is one with the Father (John 10:30); the Holy Spiritis one with God (2Sam. 23:2–3). All three share the samedivine nature; they are all-knowing, holy, glorious, and called“Lord” and “God” (Matt. 11:25; John 1:1;20:28; Acts 3:22; 5:3–4; 10:36; 1Cor. 8:6; 2Cor.3:17–18; 2Pet. 1:1). All three share in the same work ofcreation (Gen. 1:1–3), salvation (1Pet. 1:2), indwelling(John 14:23), and directing the church’s mission (Matt.28:18–20; Acts 16:6–10; 14:27; 13:2–4).

Imagery pertains to the literary use of colorful figures ofspeech that can be visualized in the imagination. The biblicalwriters employ imagery frequently, for the images they use help tocommunicate God’s message more powerfully. Imagery communicateswith readers not only at the cognitive (knowledge) level but also atthe emotional level. For example, the prophet Amos could have justsaid to Israel that “God is angry” with them. But suchlanguage is flat and bland. Instead, Amos paints a graphic picturewith his words by stating, “The lion has roared!” (Amos3:8). This is a figure of speech in which Amos compares God to a lionroaring over its prey. In a culture where people did encounterdangerous lions and where all people held respect for the power oflions, this imagery connected at both the knowledge level and theemotional level.

Since,in essence, images are figures of speech, they can be used in avariety of ways: as metaphors, similes, direct analogies, oranthropomorphisms. Like these other figures of speech, biblicalimages reflect both points of similarity and points of difference inthe two items being compared in the image. In Amos 3:8 the prophet istelling his audience something about God by using language normallyassociated with lions. Both God and the lion are extremely dangerous,and both are about to pounce on their prey. However, Amos expects hisreaders to also keep in mind that God is quite different from a lionin many, many ways.

TheBible contains hundreds of colorful images. To celebrate God’swonderful love and care, David describes God with the image of acaring shepherd (Ps. 23). To communicate the joy of God’smaterial blessings, David paints a picture of meadows and valleysshouting and singing in joy (Ps. 65:13). Jeremiah wants to conveyGod’s disgust with Israel’s idolatry, so he refers toJerusalem as a prostitute (Jer. 3:1). To underscore the strongcontrast between sin and forgiveness, Isaiah states, “Thoughyour sins are like scarlet, they shall be as white as snow”(Isa. 1:18).

Jesususes imagery frequently in his teaching. For example, he compares thekingdom of heaven to a mustard seed, which starts small but slowlygrows to become the largest of shrubs (Matt. 13:31–32). Toillustrate the difficulty of a rich person entering the kingdom ofheaven, Jesus paints a colorful and humorous image of a camel tryingto get through the tiny eye of a needle (Matt. 19:24). He uses dozensof images to communicate different aspects of his personality andmission, comparing himself to a wide range of things: a gate, a vine,a light, a road, a shepherd, bread, and more. Paul uses imagery whenhe tells us to put on the armor of God (Eph. 6:10–18) and whenhe compares Jesus to a cornerstone (2:20). The book of Revelation ispacked with vivid images, portraying, for example, Jesus as a lamb(Rev. 5:6) and Satan as a dragon (20:2).

Imagery pertains to the literary use of colorful figures ofspeech that can be visualized in the imagination. The biblicalwriters employ imagery frequently, for the images they use help tocommunicate God’s message more powerfully. Imagery communicateswith readers not only at the cognitive (knowledge) level but also atthe emotional level. For example, the prophet Amos could have justsaid to Israel that “God is angry” with them. But suchlanguage is flat and bland. Instead, Amos paints a graphic picturewith his words by stating, “The lion has roared!” (Amos3:8). This is a figure of speech in which Amos compares God to a lionroaring over its prey. In a culture where people did encounterdangerous lions and where all people held respect for the power oflions, this imagery connected at both the knowledge level and theemotional level.

Since,in essence, images are figures of speech, they can be used in avariety of ways: as metaphors, similes, direct analogies, oranthropomorphisms. Like these other figures of speech, biblicalimages reflect both points of similarity and points of difference inthe two items being compared in the image. In Amos 3:8 the prophet istelling his audience something about God by using language normallyassociated with lions. Both God and the lion are extremely dangerous,and both are about to pounce on their prey. However, Amos expects hisreaders to also keep in mind that God is quite different from a lionin many, many ways.

TheBible contains hundreds of colorful images. To celebrate God’swonderful love and care, David describes God with the image of acaring shepherd (Ps. 23). To communicate the joy of God’smaterial blessings, David paints a picture of meadows and valleysshouting and singing in joy (Ps. 65:13). Jeremiah wants to conveyGod’s disgust with Israel’s idolatry, so he refers toJerusalem as a prostitute (Jer. 3:1). To underscore the strongcontrast between sin and forgiveness, Isaiah states, “Thoughyour sins are like scarlet, they shall be as white as snow”(Isa. 1:18).

Jesususes imagery frequently in his teaching. For example, he compares thekingdom of heaven to a mustard seed, which starts small but slowlygrows to become the largest of shrubs (Matt. 13:31–32). Toillustrate the difficulty of a rich person entering the kingdom ofheaven, Jesus paints a colorful and humorous image of a camel tryingto get through the tiny eye of a needle (Matt. 19:24). He uses dozensof images to communicate different aspects of his personality andmission, comparing himself to a wide range of things: a gate, a vine,a light, a road, a shepherd, bread, and more. Paul uses imagery whenhe tells us to put on the armor of God (Eph. 6:10–18) and whenhe compares Jesus to a cornerstone (2:20). The book of Revelation ispacked with vivid images, portraying, for example, Jesus as a lamb(Rev. 5:6) and Satan as a dragon (20:2).

A banquet is a joyful celebration, usually involving wine,abundant food, music, and dancing. Banquets celebrated specialoccasions such as the forging of a relationship (Gen. 26:26–30),the coronation of a king (1 Chron. 12:28–40), thecompletion of the temple (2 Chron. 7:8), victory over one’senemies (Gen. 14:18–19; Ps. 23:5), weddings (Gen. 29:22; John2:1–11; Rev. 19:9), birthdays of royals (Mark 6:21), and thereunion of estranged relatives (Luke 15:23–24). Banquets alsosymbolized one’s status, since they were by invitation only.One’s seating arrangement corresponded to one’s socialstatus in the group, since there were “higher” and“lower” positions (Luke 14:8–9). During the meal,people reclined on bedlike seats.

Inthe OT, the image of a banquet anticipates a future occasion when Godwill remove the reproach of his people (Isa. 25:6). It also becomes ametaphor for special access to God, who protects, blesses, and honorshis people (Ps. 23:5).

Theplot of the book of Esther revolves around banquets. The book openswith two big banquets held by Ahasuerus (Esther 1) that conclude withthe removal of Vashti as queen, soon replaced by Esther. Estherinvites the king and Haman to a banquet in order to expose theinsidious plot of the latter (Esther 7). The book culminateswith a great banquet that is the proto­type for an annual banquetcelebrating the Jews’ victory over their enemies, Purim(9:2–32).

Jesususes the banquet as a metaphor for the presence of the kingdom (cf.Matt. 9:14–17). He tells a parable of a king who has planned awedding banquet for his son. Those who were invited have refused toattend (i.e., the Jewish leaders), so the king commands his servantsto go out into the streets and gather as many people as they canfind, both good and bad (Matt. 22:1–10).

Jesusalso uses the imagery of a banquet to describe the final futuremanifestation of the kingdom. He exhorts his disciples to be preparedfor the unexpected return of the bridegroom, lest they be excludedfrom the wedding banquet (Matt. 25:1–13). At the Last Supper,he commands the disciples to continue the practice of sharing breadand wine after his departure, to remember his atoning death and toanticipate his future coming (Matt. 26:26–29). This futurebanquet will celebrate Christ’s final union with his bride, thechurch (Rev. 19:6–9).

About a third of the OT is poetic. Poetry is a more elevatedway of speaking and writing than prose. It is a departure from normalpatterns of speech and exhibits a high degree of attention toliterary artifice. In poetry, how something is said is as importantas what is said. Poetry employs various poetic devices andconventions that are less frequent in or completely absent fromordinary speech. Among these are acrostic, inclusion, chiasm,succinctness, parallelism, and the heightened use of imagery (seealso Acrostic).

Hebrewpoetry also employs the full range of figures of speech, includingmetaphor, simile, synecdoche (substituting part for whole or viceversa, such as “set sail” or “lying in wait forblood”), anthimeria (substituting one part of speech foranother, such as “let the dry appear”), merism (the wholeexpressed with two opposites, such as “day and night”),anthropomorphism, personification (“let the rivers clap theirhands” [Ps. 98:8]), and so on.

Inclusionand Chiasm

Inclusion(or inclusio) is a structuring device whereby a unit of text beginsand ends with the same or a very similar word or phrase. Thus theincluded material is bounded and defined as a unit of text. Forexample, Song 2:8–17 begins, “Listen! My beloved! Look!Here he comes, leaping across the mountains, bounding over the hills.My beloved is like a gazelle or a young stag,” and it ends,“Until the day breaks and the shadows flee, turn, my beloved,and be like a gazelle or like a young stag on the rugged hills.”This opening and closing with the same metaphor bounds the enclosedmaterial as a unit of text. Another example is the way Prov. 1:2–7(NRSV) begins and ends with the words “wisdom,”“instruction,” and “understanding/knowledge,”which delineates these verses as a block of text.

Chiasm(or chiasmus) is a way of organizing material whereby the second halfof a text is a mirror image of the first half. “The Sabbath wasmade for man, not man for the Sabbath” (Mark 2:27 pars.) can bediagrammed as A/B/Bʹ/Aʹ. More and more elaborate chiasmshave been proposed for various parts of Scripture, with many elementson each side. The flood narrative, the Abraham cycle, the book ofRuth, and so on may be written to a chiastic structure.

Succinctnessand Imagery

Oneof the characteristics of Hebrew poetry is its succinctness; it saysa lot with a few words. One way this is accomplished is through theuse of imagery. “The Lord is my rock” (Ps. 18:2)compresses volumes of theology into a single image, thus requiringfar less verbosity than if the concept had been stated withoutimagery. However, the trade-off is that more is required of thereader. The reader must ask, “How is the Lord like a rock?”and fill in the blank. This is true also of other ways that poetry issuccinct—for example, its tendency to leave out particles andconnectives. For example, “The Lord is my shepherd,/ Ilack nothing” (Ps. 23:1) leaves out a needed conjunctionbetween the two phrases, which the reader must supply. Is it “TheLord is my shepherd, sooner or later I shall need nothing”?“The Lord is my shepherd, even so I shall need nothing”?Or “The Lord is my shepherd, therefore I shall need nothing.”The reader must decide the correct association between the two linesbecause the conjunction is purposely left out of the verse. Thuspoetry engages the reader and must be read slowly and carefully.

Parallelism

Themost recognizable feature of biblical poetry is the phenomenon ofparallelism. This is the counterweight to succinctness. While poetryis designed to say much with few words, these words occur in linepairs, the second of which takes the thought further. For example,“Why do the nations conspire/ and the peoples plot invain?” (Ps. 2:1). Obviously, “nations” is parallelwith “peoples,” and “conspire” with “plotin vain.” LineA and lineB state in essence the samethought with different words, and they state it in the same way. Thisis called synonymous parallelism. “Lazy hands make for poverty,/ but diligent hands bring wealth” (Prov. 10:4). In this verse,the parallel elements are opposites: lazy and diligent, poverty andwealth. This is called antithetical parallelism.

Sometimes,the second line completes the thought of the first line, formingcomplementary parallelism: “Israel, put your hope in the Lord/both now and forevermore” (Ps. 131:3). When a symbol is set inparallel with the thing symbolized, this is emblematic parallelism:“As the deer pants for streams of water,/so my soulpants for you, my God” (Ps. 42:1). Sometimes lineBfollows lineA in time, forming sequential parallelism: “Icall out to the Lord,/ and he answers me from his holymountain” (Ps. 3:4). When lineB follows logically fromlineA, this is consequential parallelism: “In peace Iwill lie down and sleep,/ for you alone, Lord, make me dwell insafety” (Ps. 4:8). Traditionally, when the relation between thelines does not fit into any defined category, the parallelism iscalled synthetic.

About a third of the OT is poetic. Poetry is a more elevatedway of speaking and writing than prose. It is a departure from normalpatterns of speech and exhibits a high degree of attention toliterary artifice. In poetry, how something is said is as importantas what is said. Poetry employs various poetic devices andconventions that are less frequent in or completely absent fromordinary speech. Among these are acrostic, inclusion, chiasm,succinctness, parallelism, and the heightened use of imagery (seealso Acrostic).

Hebrewpoetry also employs the full range of figures of speech, includingmetaphor, simile, synecdoche (substituting part for whole or viceversa, such as “set sail” or “lying in wait forblood”), anthimeria (substituting one part of speech foranother, such as “let the dry appear”), merism (the wholeexpressed with two opposites, such as “day and night”),anthropomorphism, personification (“let the rivers clap theirhands” [Ps. 98:8]), and so on.

Inclusionand Chiasm

Inclusion(or inclusio) is a structuring device whereby a unit of text beginsand ends with the same or a very similar word or phrase. Thus theincluded material is bounded and defined as a unit of text. Forexample, Song 2:8–17 begins, “Listen! My beloved! Look!Here he comes, leaping across the mountains, bounding over the hills.My beloved is like a gazelle or a young stag,” and it ends,“Until the day breaks and the shadows flee, turn, my beloved,and be like a gazelle or like a young stag on the rugged hills.”This opening and closing with the same metaphor bounds the enclosedmaterial as a unit of text. Another example is the way Prov. 1:2–7(NRSV) begins and ends with the words “wisdom,”“instruction,” and “understanding/knowledge,”which delineates these verses as a block of text.

Chiasm(or chiasmus) is a way of organizing material whereby the second halfof a text is a mirror image of the first half. “The Sabbath wasmade for man, not man for the Sabbath” (Mark 2:27 pars.) can bediagrammed as A/B/Bʹ/Aʹ. More and more elaborate chiasmshave been proposed for various parts of Scripture, with many elementson each side. The flood narrative, the Abraham cycle, the book ofRuth, and so on may be written to a chiastic structure.

Succinctnessand Imagery

Oneof the characteristics of Hebrew poetry is its succinctness; it saysa lot with a few words. One way this is accomplished is through theuse of imagery. “The Lord is my rock” (Ps. 18:2)compresses volumes of theology into a single image, thus requiringfar less verbosity than if the concept had been stated withoutimagery. However, the trade-off is that more is required of thereader. The reader must ask, “How is the Lord like a rock?”and fill in the blank. This is true also of other ways that poetry issuccinct—for example, its tendency to leave out particles andconnectives. For example, “The Lord is my shepherd,/ Ilack nothing” (Ps. 23:1) leaves out a needed conjunctionbetween the two phrases, which the reader must supply. Is it “TheLord is my shepherd, sooner or later I shall need nothing”?“The Lord is my shepherd, even so I shall need nothing”?Or “The Lord is my shepherd, therefore I shall need nothing.”The reader must decide the correct association between the two linesbecause the conjunction is purposely left out of the verse. Thuspoetry engages the reader and must be read slowly and carefully.

Parallelism

Themost recognizable feature of biblical poetry is the phenomenon ofparallelism. This is the counterweight to succinctness. While poetryis designed to say much with few words, these words occur in linepairs, the second of which takes the thought further. For example,“Why do the nations conspire/ and the peoples plot invain?” (Ps. 2:1). Obviously, “nations” is parallelwith “peoples,” and “conspire” with “plotin vain.” LineA and lineB state in essence the samethought with different words, and they state it in the same way. Thisis called synonymous parallelism. “Lazy hands make for poverty,/ but diligent hands bring wealth” (Prov. 10:4). In this verse,the parallel elements are opposites: lazy and diligent, poverty andwealth. This is called antithetical parallelism.

Sometimes,the second line completes the thought of the first line, formingcomplementary parallelism: “Israel, put your hope in the Lord/both now and forevermore” (Ps. 131:3). When a symbol is set inparallel with the thing symbolized, this is emblematic parallelism:“As the deer pants for streams of water,/so my soulpants for you, my God” (Ps. 42:1). Sometimes lineBfollows lineA in time, forming sequential parallelism: “Icall out to the Lord,/ and he answers me from his holymountain” (Ps. 3:4). When lineB follows logically fromlineA, this is consequential parallelism: “In peace Iwill lie down and sleep,/ for you alone, Lord, make me dwell insafety” (Ps. 4:8). Traditionally, when the relation between thelines does not fit into any defined category, the parallelism iscalled synthetic.